Human Appropriation of the World's Fresh Water Supply |
"Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink"
- Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner, by Coleridge.
- Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner, by Coleridge.
The Water Resources of Earth
Over 70% of our Earth's surface is covered by water (we should really call our planet "Ocean" instead of "Earth"). Although water is seemingly abundant, the real issue is the amount of fresh water available.
- 97.5% of all water on Earth is salt water, leaving only 2.5% as fresh water
- Nearly 70% of that fresh water is frozen in the icecaps of Antarctica and Greenland; most of the remainder is present as soil moisture, or lies in deep underground aquifers as groundwater not accessible to human use.
- < 1% of the world's fresh water (~0.007% of all water on earth) is accessible for direct human uses. This is the water found in lakes, rivers, reservoirs and those underground sources that are shallow enough to be tapped at an affordable cost. Only this amount is regularly renewed by rain and snowfall, and is therefore available on a sustainable basis.
Water as a Resource
Since antiquity, irrigation, drainage, and impoundment have been the three types of water control having a major impact on landscapes and water flows. Since the dawn of irrigated agriculture at least 5000 years ago, controlling water to grow crops has been the primary motivation for human alteration of freshwater supplies. Today, principal demands for fresh water are for irrigation, household and municipal water use, and industrial uses. Most supplies come from surface runoff, although mining of "fossil water" from underground aquifers is an important source in some areas. The pattern of water withdrawal over the past 300 years shows the dramatic increases in this century.
A timeline of human water use:
- 12,000 yrs. ago: hunter-gatherers continually return to fertile river valleys
- 7,000 yrs. ago: water shortages spur humans to invent irrigation
- 1,100 yrs ago: collapse of Mayan civilization due to drought
- Mid 1800's: fecal contamination of surface water causes severe health problems (typhoid, cholera) in some major North American cities, notably Chicago
- 1858: "Year of the Great Stink" in London, due to sewage and wastes in Thames
- Late 1800s-early 1900: Dams became popular as a water management tool
- 1900s: The green revolution strengthens human dependency on irrigation for agriculture
- World War II: water quality impacted by industrial and agricultural chemicals
- 1972: Clean Water Act passed; humans recognize need to protect water
Figure 1: The water usage of different regions of the world per capita in cubic meters. |
Consumptive and Non-Consumptive Water Use
Consumptive water use refers to water that is not returned to streams after use. For the most part, this is water that enters the atmospheric pool of water via evaporation (from reservoirs in arid areas) and from plant transpiration (especially from "thirsty" crops such as cotton and alfalfa). Irrigated agriculture is responsible for most consumptive water use, and decreases surface run-off. An extreme example is the Colorado River, which has most of its water diverted to irrigated agriculture, so that in a normal year, no water at all reaches the river’s mouth.
Agriculture is responsible for 87 % of the total water used globally. In Asia it accounts for 86% of total annual water withdrawal, compared with 49% in North and Central America and 38% in Europe. Rice growing, in particular, is a heavy consumer of water: it takes some 5000 liters of water to produce 1 kg of rice. Compared with other crops, rice production is less efficient in the way it uses water. Wheat, for example, consumes 4000 m3/ha, while rice consumes 7650 m3/ha.
A great deal of water use is non-consumptive, which means that the water is returned to surface runoff. Usually that water is contaminated however, whether used for agriculture, domestic consumption, or industry. The WHO estimates that more than 5 million people die each year from diseases caused by unsafe drinking water, and lack of sanitation and water for hygiene. This has economic effects as well: an outbreak of cholera in Latin America killed hundreds of people, and cost hundreds of millions of dollars.
Some believe that fresh water will be a critical limiting resource for many regions in the near future. About one-third of the world's population lives in countries that are experiencing water stress. In Asia, where water has always been regarded as an abundant resource, per capita availability declined by 40-60% between 1955 and 1990. Projections suggest that most Asian countries will have severe water problems by the year 2025. Most of Africa, historically, has been water-poor.
What is the problem?
- The population is growing rapidly, putting more pressure on our water supply (demand is increasing)
- The amount of water is effectively reduced by pollution and contamination (supply is decreasing)
- What does the future hold? We can best explore this question by looking carefully at the world's water resources.
The Freshwater Biome accounts for one fifth of the area of the Earth and provides half of the drinking water, one third of the water used for irrigation, and nearly ninety percent of the world's bathwater. The biome consists of inland lakes, streams, brooks, creeks, and rivers--as well as ditches, sloughs, gutters, puddles and canals. These bodies of freshwater, known collectively as "liquid pathways," both keep our planet hydrated and provide a habitat for over 700 species of fish, some 1200 amphibians and a variety of mollusks and insect life. The earth's freshwater biome and the species it supports are being seriously threatened by pollution from farm runoff, industrial discharges, recreational boating, and fast food packaging. Because of the increasing pollution of the freshwater biome, bottled water has recently become more popular than freshwater as a beverage. Though bottled water has temporarily decreased the demand for water derived from the freshwater biome, scientists predict that supplies of bottled water may be largely depleted by 2030, when, once again, humans will rely mostly on the freshwater biome to quench their thirst.
| ||||||||||
Potable water is water which is fit for consumption by humans and other animals. It is also called drinking water, in a reference to its intended use. Water may be naturally potable, as is the case with pristine springs, or it may need to be treated in order to be safe. In either instance, the safety of water is assessed with tests which look for potentially harmful contaminants.
The issue of access to potable water is very important. In developed countries, people may not put a great deal of thought into the source of their water. In many First World nations, citizens can turn on a tap for fresh, potable water which may also be enriched with things like fluoride for health. In developing countries, however, and especially in Africa, a large proportion of the population does not have access to safe water.
Water which is not safe to drink can carry diseases and heavy metals. People who consume this water will become ill, and there is a risk of death. Unfortunately, even in areas where the water is known to be unsafe, people may drink it anyway, out of desperation. The lack of potable water is often accompanied by other lapses in sanitation, such as open sewers and limited garbage collection. Many of these public health issues impact the poor more than anyone else.
Water which is contaminated can be treated to turn it into potable water. Once of the easiest ways to treat water is boiling. Boiling water may not remove heavy contaminants, but it can neutralize most bacteria and viruses which may be present. Water can also be treated with chemicals such as bleach, which sometimes come in the form of tablets for field and camping use. In addition, water can be pumped through a filter to remove particulates.
Because water quality is important, many nations strive to protect the safety of their water and to increase access to potable water. Some countries have laws governing water safety, with severe penalties for polluters. These nations typically test water on a regular basis for contaminants, making the results of this testing available to citizens by request. In developing nations, many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are working to improve water quality conditions, along with other basic sanitation.
WORLD AGRICULTURE
Over the 10,000 years since agriculture began to be developed, peoples everywhere have discovered the food value of wild plants and animals and domesticated and bred them. The most important are cereals such as wheat, rice, barley, corn, and rye; sugarcane and sugar beets; meat animals such as sheep, cattle, goats, and pigs or swine; poultry such as chickens, ducks, and turkeys; and such products as milk, cheese, eggs, nuts, and oils. Fruits, vegetables, and olives are also major foods for people; feed grains for animals include soybeans, field corn, and sorghum. Separate articles on individual plants and animals contain further information.
Agricultural income is also derived from nonfood crops such as rubber, fiber plants, tobacco, and oilseeds used in synthetic chemical compounds, as well as raising animals for pelt.
The conditions that determine what will be raised in an area include climate, water supply, and terrain.
Nearly 50 percent of the world's labor force is employed in agriculture. The distribution in the late 1980s ranged from 64 percent of the economically active population in Africa to less than 4 percent in the U.S. and Canada. In Asia the figure was 61 percent; in South America, 24 percent; in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, 15 percent, and in Western Europe, 7 percent.
Farm size varies widely from region to region. In the late 1980s, the average for Canadian farms was about 230 ha (about 570 acres) per farm; for U.S. farms, about 185 ha (about 460 acres). The average size of a single landholding in the Philippines, however, may be somewhat less than 3.6 ha (less than 9 acres), and in Indonesia, a little less than 1.2 ha (less than 3 acres).
Size also depends on the purpose of the farm. Commercial farming, or production for cash, is usually on large holdings. The latifundia of Latin America are large, privately owned estates worked by tenant labor. Single-crop plantations produce tea, rubber, and cocoa. Wheat farms are most efficient when they comprise some thousands of hectares and can be worked by teams of people and machines. Australian sheep stations and other livestock farms must be large to provide grazing for thousands of animals. The agricultural plots of Chinese communes and the cooperative farms held by Peruvian communities are other necessarily large agricultural units, as were the collective farms that were owned and operated by state employees in the former Soviet Union.
Individual subsistence farms or small-family mixed-farm operations are decreasing in number in developed countries but are still numerous in the developing countries of Africa and Asia. A "back-to-the-land" movement in the U.S. reversed the decline of small farms in New England and Alaska in the decade from 1970 to 1980.
Nomadic herders range over large areas in sub-Saharan Africa, Afghanistan, and Lapland; and herding is a major part of agriculture in such areas as Mongolia.
Much of the foreign exchange earned by a country may be derived from a single commodity; for example, Sri Lanka depends on tea, Denmark specializes in dairy products, Australia in wool, and New Zealand and Argentina in meat products. In the U.S., wheat, corn, and soybeans have become major foreign exchange commodities in recent decades.
The importance of an individual country as an exporter of agricultural products depends on many variables. Among them is the possibility that the country is too little developed industrially to produce manufactured goods in sufficient quantity or technical sophistication. Such agricultural exporters include Ghana, with cocoa, and Burma (Myanmar), with rice. On the other hand, an exceptionally well-developed country may produce surpluses that are not needed by its own population; such has been the case of the U.S., Canada, and some of the Western European countries.
Because nations depend on agriculture not only for food but for national income and raw materials for industry as well, trade in agriculture is a constant international concern. It is regulated by international agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and by trading areas such as the European Community.
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the UN directs much attention to agricultural trade and policies. According to the FAO, world agricultural production, stimulated by improving technology, reached a record high in the late 1980s. Further, agricultural output in developing nations increased 41 percent during the 1977-1988 time periods, as compared to a rise of 9 percent in developed countries. On a per capita basis, however, food production rose by only 12 percent in developing nations, and less than 1 percent in developed countries.
Agricultural Exports
The U.S. is the world's principal exporter of agricultural products. In 1989 the value of produce exported was about $39.7 billion, including roughly $1.5 billion in donations and loans to developing nations.
A substantial percentage of the wheat, soybeans, rice, cotton, tobacco, and corn for grain produced in the U.S. is exported. The principal foreign markets for the products are Asia, Western Europe, and Latin America. Japan heads the list of individual countries that import U.S. farm products.
Forestry is a science. One of the most important of the many disciplines in forestry is silviculture. Silviculture is the agriculture of trees--how to grow them, how to maximize growth and return, and how to manipulate tree species compositions to meet landowner objectives.
To understand silviculture, one must first understand silvics. Silvics involves understanding how trees grow, reproduce, and respond to environmental changes. Here is a quick lesson on silvics.
Some tree species thrive in shade--sugar maple, beech, hemlock, dogwood, red maple, and basswood are good examples. These species can live, grow, and reproduce in shade and semishade conditions. Many tree species prefer or require full sunlight--yellow-popular, walnut, some oaks, black cherry, yellow pine, and hickory are good examples. These species require full sunlight to reproduce, after which they grow best in full sunlight or as part of the overstory canopy of the forest. They also tend to be the fastest-growing species and, to a great extent, the most valuable species. Still other species such as white pine, white ash, and some oaks, elm, and birch are intermediate in their sunlight requirements. You may have noticed these patterns in the woods. Normally, large overstory trees are oaks and poplar while seedling and sapling composition is generally maple, beech, and other oaks.
Silvics also is concerned with seeding requirements, elevation, and location. Different species will show up in different areas, on different soils, and at different elevations. If this sounds like ecology, then it can be stated accurately that silvics is the ecology of the forest.
Silviculture involves managing and handling the forest in view of its silvics.
Silviculture imitates a natural change--such as a windthrow, beetle infestation, or fire. However, silvicultural methods harvest forest products for human use rather than wait on nature to burn them, eat them, or blow them down. Silviculture can be practiced at any time in the life of a timber stand. Deep southern pine management is an excellent example of silvicultural treatments throughout the life of a stand. However, in Appalachian hardwoods, 90 to 100% of silviculture is decided and carried out at the time of timber harvest. Therefore, I will limit discussion to silvicultural harvest methods. It is important to realize that a harvest in Appalachian hardwoods is also regeneration-harvesting which funnels sunlight to hit the forest floor, which causes seed to germinate and existing seedlings to grow.
Traditional Industry v. High-tech Industry
Where in the world is traditional industry? There are no pure traditional economies in the World now. India is not a traditional economy. Many economies continue with traditional small scale/ cottage/ village industries limited by local markets as well as traditional small scale fragmented land farming, but most economies have modern industries and transport, growing urbanization. None of the countries can be strictly referred to as traditional economies. And, many of the countries are exporting and importing through cross border trade. Many are capitalist economies, often mixed economies. Some are relatively closed economies with communist or religious dictatorships.
If you mean which countries have small-scale traditional industries co-existing with modern industries, then most underdeveloped and developing countries fall in this category. They include, beside India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Vietnam, Indonesia, Mynamar, Muaritious, several poor African countries.
A traditional economy is an economic system in which resources are allocated by inheritance, and which has a strong social network and is based on primitive methods and tools. It is strongly connected to subsistence farming. Most countries that have historically had a traditional economy have replaced it with a command economy, market economy, or mixed economy. However, it is still found today in underdeveloped, agricultural parts of South America, Asia, and Africa. A traditional economy is where people produce most of what they need to survive. Hunting and gathering, farming, and herding cattle are the bases of traditional economy. People hunt for the food they eat or raise it themselves. Often they make their own clothing and tools. If they produce more food than they need, they trade the surplus, or extra food, for goods made by others.
If you mean which countries have small-scale traditional industries co-existing with modern industries, then most underdeveloped and developing countries fall in this category. They include, beside India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Vietnam, Indonesia, Mynamar, Muaritious, several poor African countries.
A traditional economy is an economic system in which resources are allocated by inheritance, and which has a strong social network and is based on primitive methods and tools. It is strongly connected to subsistence farming. Most countries that have historically had a traditional economy have replaced it with a command economy, market economy, or mixed economy. However, it is still found today in underdeveloped, agricultural parts of South America, Asia, and Africa. A traditional economy is where people produce most of what they need to survive. Hunting and gathering, farming, and herding cattle are the bases of traditional economy. People hunt for the food they eat or raise it themselves. Often they make their own clothing and tools. If they produce more food than they need, they trade the surplus, or extra food, for goods made by others.
Economic statistics on high-tech sectors
In 2004, the European Union had almost 140 000 enterprises in high-tech manufacturing and four times as many in high-tech knowledge-intensive services (600 000).
A different picture emerges when considering turnover; Germany led the way in 2004, with a total turnover of EUR 150 billion in high-tech manufacturing, ahead of France (EUR 141 billion) which had ranked first in the previous year. The United Kingdom ranked third (EUR 90 billion), although its turnover had gone down from 2003. One of the main reasons for this is the size of the high-tech manufacturing sector in the UK, which is smaller than its main EU counterparts. This is particularly relevant when compared to Italy, which counted almost three times as many enterprises in high-tech manufacturing as the UK.
Average labor productivity in the EU in high-tech sectors was EUR 69 000. However, in individual Member States it varied considerably around this average. As in the previous year Ireland remained in first position with an average labor productivity of EUR 145 000, followed by Luxembourg with EUR 115 000. Among the new Member States, only Cyprus was above the EU average, with EUR 75 000, while labor productivity in Portugal, Italy and Greece hovered just below the EU average.
The Ten Most Populated Cites in the World
Rank City Population Year
1. Shanghai, China 13,773,100 2007e
2. Mumbai, India 13,072,464 2006e
3. Karachi, Pakistan 12,991,000 2008p
4. Istanbul, Turkey 11,369,613 2007c
5. São Paulo, Brazil 11,016,703 2006c
6. Moscow, Russia 10,126,424 2006e
7. Seoul, South Korea 9,820,171 2005c
8. Delhi, India 9,817,439 2005c
9. Beijing, China 9,601,600 2005e
10. Guangzhou, China 8,747,300 2007e
Tribal Groups
Uncontacted people, also referred to as isolated people or lost tribes, are communities who live, or have lived, either by choice or by circumstance, without significant contact with globalized civilization.
Few peoples have remained totally uncontacted by modern civilization, and almost all current groups are in danger of being unwillingly contacted. Indigenous rights activists call for such groups to be left alone in respect of their right to self-determination. A number have chosen to make contact either exceedingly difficult or dangerous for those trying to reach them.
The majority of such communities are located in densely-forested areas in South America and New Guinea. Knowledge of the existence of these groups comes mostly from infrequent (and often violent) encounters by neighboring tribes, and also from aerial footage. A major problem with contacting isolated people is that they will lack any immunity to common diseases, which can be devastating to a closely-contained population with no natural immunity
The Reward Goes to >>>>…Brazil!
On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this reported increase, Brazil has surpassed the island of New Guinea (divided between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) as the region having the highest number of uncontacted tribes (however, numbers are not available for Papua New Guinea).
Brazil has the most uncontacted groups in the world. The seven Terras Indígenas (TI) (Reservations) exclusively reserved for isolated people are:
- TI Alto Tarauacá in Acre — various tribes. (Isolados do Alto Tarauacá)
- TI Hi-Merimã in Amazonas — Himerimã. (Isolados do médio Purus)
- TI Massaco in Rondônia — Sirionó (Isolados do rio São Simão)
- TI Igarapé Omerê in Rondônia — Kanoe do Omerê & Akuntsu
- TI Rio Muqui in Rondônia — Isolados das cabeceiras do Rio Muqui
- TI Rio Pardo in Mato Grosso and Amazonas
The Most Diverse Place on Earth
The address of the Reformed Church of Newtown is 85-15 Broadway, in the Elmhurst neighborhood of New York City, in the borough of Queens. Wikipedia reports that by the 1980s, people from 112 nations were living in the Elmhurst area. When I visited a week ago, my hosts said that 127 different languages are spoken within this zip code. It's recognized as the most ethnically diverse neighborhood in New York City, which in all probability makes it the most diverse urban area in the world.
Africa is the most diverse nation. There is over 800 different ethnic groups in Africa, each ethnic group with its own culture, history, traditions and language. As for the least diverse...it is Japan by far because it is 99.9% homogeneous, one percent of their population is other people. The Japanese do not intermingle with other cultures that much cause they have a strong sense of unity.
Population by region
Population statistics for 6 continents and 10 countries
Asia accounts for over 60% of the world population with more than 4 billion people. China and India together have about 37 percent of the world's population. Africa follows with 1 billion people, 15% of the world's population. Europe's 733 million people make up 11% of the world's population. Latin America and the Caribbean region to 589 million (9%), Northern America is home to 352 million (5%) and Oceania to 35 million (less than 1%).
Access to Safe Water Map
"More than five million people, most of them children, die every year from illnesses caused by drinking poor quality water."
Percentage of Population without Reasonable Access to Safe Drinking Water
Reasonable access to safe drinking water is defined as the availability of at least 20 liters per person per day from an improved source within 1 kilometer of the user's dwelling.
Percentage of Population without Reasonable Access to Safe Drinking Water
Reasonable access to safe drinking water is defined as the availability of at least 20 liters per person per day from an improved source within 1 kilometer of the user's dwelling.
"90% of the developing world's waste water is still discharged untreated into local rivers and streams." |
No comments:
Post a Comment